Akwesasne takes great pride in the preservation of Mohawk culture and language here at the Land Where The Partridge Drums.  Our longhouse is the biggest in the Confederacy, and we have more speakers of our native tongue, both young and old, than any other Iroquois community.  Yet when it comes to history, we fall short.  For some reason, history is a neglected area, almost a taboo subject.  I have often wondered why this is, even more so when I consider the level of interest there is among people to know more about it.  There is no published history of Akwesasne, nor is there a fully developed curriculum in the schools on this subject.  Why?

For the last eleven years I have been studying our history, and I have begun to understand just why it is that our history seems shrouded in mist.  It’s not that our history is unknowable; there is ample documentation available if one knows where to look.  What I have found is that there are political and social factors involved that have a vested interest in maintaining the sense of "darkness" that surrounds our history.  The Siamese Twins of Ignorance and Fear lurk behind these scenes, peering at us from the shadows.

I have studied Mohawk history on my own and as an employee of both the local Akwesasne media, the Akwesasne Museum, and the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne, where I worked in public relations, archives, and land claims.  Although I had always said I would never get into politics, I decided to run for district chief of the MCA in the summer of 2000 because I felt that the historical knowledge I had gained over the years would be an asset in the various land claims that were being negotiated or heading to court.

Much to my surprise, I won.

Nine months later, I find myself in hand-to-hand combat with the Siamese Twins of Ignorance and Fear almost on a daily basis.  And I find myself gaining an even deeper understanding of why our history, or should I say our true history, is a political hot potato here in Akwesasne.

Many of you may have probably heard about the troubles going on among the chiefs of the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne.  The atmosphere is thick with rumor and innuendo about "infighting" and chiefs who don’t get along.  I have resisted addressing these issues in public for some time, mainly because I felt that things could be worked out behind council doors.  After hearing rumblings about some of the rumors and lies that are going around, I have decided that I can no longer afford to be silent.  To that effect, I have decided to address these issues in this document.

It is my understanding that the conflict taking place on council has its roots in the history of Akwesasne.  It is a story of not only conflicting personalities, but of conflicting histories and ideologies.

I challenge anyone who cares to really understand what is going on in modern times to follow me on this journey into our history.
 

"[The Indian Act] only breeds sorrow, contention, hatred, disrespect of family ties, spite against one another and absence of unity among us Indians.  Also creates two distinct parties at the elections.  This law was never authorized [in] its adoption among the Indians.  Therefore Sir we deliver it to you - free ourselves from it and ask you to accept for it is you, white man’s law and not of the Indians.  We are glad that there is one way to recover brotherly feelings it is by substituting the seven lords (chiefs) appointed by each of the seven totems according to the ancient customs which we know gave us peace, prosperity, & friendship and brotherly feelings in every cause either for personal good or for the benefit of the whole band.  There seemed to be one family only.  We desire to adhere to the Iroquois system of government where the source of power will lie in parallel with Whitemen law.  This ancient constitution is called "lordship." We will elect our lords who shall have full power to control the varied affairs that we Indians have.  This petition was made on 22 Sept. 1894."

These words were written in a petition to the Canadian government by the community of Akwesasne more than a hundred years ago.  I came across these words while researching the story of Jake Ice, or Saiowisakeron, a few years back.  For those of you who aren’t familiar with the story, Saiowisakeron was the man who was slain by Canadian police when they came to round up the Life Chiefs back in 1899.  He was shot trying to free his brother, Ohnehtotako, a Life Chief and a leading opponent of the elections being forced upon us by Canada.

To honor the sacrifice of Saiowisakeron, a peaceful march was held in May of 1999.  This centennial commemoration was sponsored by the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne, the elected form of government on the "Canadian" side of Akwesasne.  Having written the historical background to the event as part of my job as an archival researcher for MCA, I was approached by a reporter who asked me, "Don’t you think it’s ironic that the government that Jake Ice died to prevent is the one sponsoring this commemoration?"

"You’re not the first one to point that out," I replied.  "And if it’s irony you’re worried about, be careful where you step.  That stuff is lying in piles all over the place."

The sad truth about the story of Saiowisakeron is that even though he gave his life to preserve the authority of the Council of Life Chiefs, the Canadian government went ahead and brought elections to Akwesasne anyway.  It may have taken a couple years, but eventually the Council of Life Chiefs was supplanted by the dreaded form of government mandated by the Canadian government’s "Indian Act."  That government has evolved over the years into the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne.  The  MCA has modified itself to some degree, but it is my understanding that it fulfills—on a daily basis—the prophecies foretold by our ancestors in 1894.

As a lower-echelon employee of that government, I had often thought about the little ironies like that while observing the day-to-day politics going on all around me.  When the march began, I made up my mind that I would march alongside my fellow Mohawks to honor Sawisakeron and the sacrifice he made, and that is what I did.  As I walked, however, I began to wonder why it was that nobody in the community ever talked about reviving the old Council of Life Chiefs, the venerable form of government that meant so much to Saiowisakeron.  For a community that prides itself in preserving its language, customs, and ceremonies, we are conspicuous in ignoring such a big part of our history and culture.

The reason for that, I realize, is that very few people really know about the Council of Life Chiefs.  It is a subject that has somehow fallen through the cracks of the history.  It is remembered by only a handful of people, most of them elders.  Why is that?  I have wondered about that question for years.

The answer is fairly simple.  Just as the political authority of the Council of Life Chiefs was supplanted by the Indian Act elected government, the memory of it has been supplanted by something else.  In this case, it is the Mohawk Nation Council of Chiefs.  When one thinks about "traditional government" at Akwesasne, one naturally thinks of the Mohawk Nation Council of Chiefs, or "The Nation," as it is commonly known.  It is this form of government, both spiritual and political, which predates the arrival of the Europeans in America, hence the attraction to it by those who tire of the machinations of the elected governments on both sides of the international border.

Yet it is not the only traditional government in the pouch of our history.  There is also the Council of Life Chiefs.  This government was very similar to the Mohawk Nation Council of Chiefs in that the chiefs were chosen for life by the clan mothers and followed a strict code of conduct.  The major difference is that it was a local government while the Mohawk Nation was a national government.

One would assume that these two forms of government, being so complimentary to each other, would both be widely known and promoted by the community, yet the Council of Life Chiefs is virtually unknown today.  The reason for this lies in the origins of that government, and in a history that is just as misunderstood.  It is a history dominated not by the famous Iroquois Confederacy, but by another native alliance which has also slipped through the cracks of history.  This confederacy was known to our people as Tsiata Nihononwentsiake.  It was known to the colonials as The Seven Nations of Canada.

What follows is an overview of the origins and history of that confederation, and an explanation of just how and why Akwesasne and our sister Mohawk communities have developed a kind of "cultural amnesia" about it.
 

How the Mohawks came to be a part of the Seven Nations is a fascinating story, and one that an article of this scope can’t possibly do justice to.  It all began in the early 1600’s when a war party of Algonquins and Hurons met up with a Mohawk war party near Lake Champlain and prepared to do battle the same way they had for centuries.  This time, however, the Algonquins and Hurons had a surprise in store for their enemies.  The assembled warriors stepped aside to reveal three armored frenchmen who opened fire on the Mohawks with their firearms, killing three chiefs and scattering the warriors.  This shocking event set the stage for Mohawk/French relations for generations to come.

The French alliance with the Huron and Algonquin enemies of the Iroquois Confederacy resulted in untold bloodshed and violence.  To level the playing field, the Iroquois formed ties with the competing Dutch colony of New Netherlands (based in what is now New York City and Albany) to gain access to firearms of their own.  This arms race resulted in several nations (like the Erie, Wenro, Petun, Cat, and Neutral) being completely conquered, absorbed, or driven out by the Iroquois.  Even the mighty Huron Confederacy was shattered by the Iroquois, the remnants scattering to the protection of the French colony on the St. Lawrence River and other far-flung locales.

Finally, the French army decided enough was enough and they launched an armed invasion of the Mohawk Valley.  They destroyed the villages they found there, but the Mohawks managed to escape.  The Mohawks decided it was time to start making peace with the "Axe Makers," and they allowed Jesuit missionaries into their villages as a type of peace envoy.  These missionaries, who at first ministered to the Christian Huron and Algonquin captives living among the Mohawk, began to gain a few Mohawk adherents.  This led to internal divisions among the villages.  Soon there was talk of a new village being established on the St. Lawrence River for the Teiaiasontha Onkwehonwe, or the "Original  People Who Make the Sign of the Cross," to practice their new religion.  Many of the Huron, Algonquin, and Mohawk made the journey north, including the famous Atasatha, or Kryn, also known as the "Great Mohawk," and Kateri Tekakwitha, also known as the "Lily of the Mohawks."

By 1700, it is said that 2/3 of the Mohawk population had moved from the Mohawk River Valley to the St. Lawrence River.  Their new village eventually came to be known as Kahnawake, or "At the Rapids," the same name of a village in the Mohawk Valley.  This village got so big that it was said that as many as 24 different nations were represented there. As time went on, little offshoot villages began to form.  One of these villages was the Huron village of Wendake, or Lorette, near Quebec City.  Another was Kanehsatake, or Oka,  also known as the Lake of Two Mountains, located near the place where the Ottawa River meets the St. Lawrence.  The Abenaki were settled at Odanak, also known as St. Francis, southeast of Montreal.  By the late 1740’s, a village of Onondagas and a few Oneidas would be established in what is now known as Ogdensburgh, New York.  This village was known as Sawekatsi, or Oswegatchie.

These five villages came to be known as the Seven Nations of Canada due to the fact that there were three different nations represented at Kanehsatake: the Nipissing, the Algonquin, and the Mohawk.  They lived in separate neighborhoods of the same village.

All of these villages had either a Sulpician or Jesuit mission in their midst.  Non-native historians have emphasized the role of the missionaries in the political dealings of these villages, but it is becoming more and more evident that the natives themselves relied on their own forms of ritual and protocol to establish this new alliance.  They maintained their native languages, clanship systems, leadership customs, and used wampum belts and strings extensively in all their dealings.  They continued to hunt, fish, and plant their crops according to the old ways, and observed a calendar of rituals such as the harvest and seed ceremony.  Traditional medicines continued to be harvested as well.

While many have erroneously written these natives off as having been so thoroughly Christianized as to be indistinguishable from white people, the reality is that they simply added an "Indianized" version of Christianity to their culturally-intact way of life.  Some would even go so far as to say that the establishment of the Seven Nations alliance was an example of the Mohawks extending the Great Law of Peace to their former enemies, just as they did when the Five Nations were united under the Peacemaker.

It has been explained to me by more than one person here in Akwesasne that the resistance to the Seven Nations of Canada has a lot to do with negative feelings some people have toward the Roman Catholic Church.  Knowing the role the Church played in the residential schools, they see the Church as having done nothing but suppress our traditions, language, and way of life.  They extend this belief back a few centuries, thinking that this is how things have always been.  What they don’t realize is that the early missionaries actually promoted the use of the Mohawk language by writing and publishing Mohawk dictionaries, hymnals, and scripture.  Our people were also allowed to sing hymns in Mohawk in Church, whereas other Roman Catholics had to sing in Latin.

Did the Church and her missionaries really hold as much influence over the Seven Nations of Canada as people assume?  One must be cautious about accepting this too readily, since it is often the missionaries themselves who make these claims in the reports they wrote to their superiors.  If we don’t necessarily accept their word that we were bloodthirsty cannibals, why are we so quick to believe that we were their docile followers?

Another factor that weighs against the Seven Nations in modern times is the knowledge that the Seven Nations often went to war against their brother Iroquois.  Unfortunately, this isn’t another one of those myths that needs to be dispelled.  It is a sad fact of history.
 

The wars between the competing colonies had quite an impact on their native allies.  As we have seen, entire nations were destroyed because of these wars.  For the Iroquois of the Six Nations and Seven Nations, these wars brought them into actual hand-to-hand combat against people who in some cases were their actual brothers.  These wars resulted in villages being destroyed, mass migrations, and drastic changes in their way of life.  These events warrant not only their own separate chapter, but serious consideration by anyone today who seeks a true understanding of how things got to be the way they are.

Not long after the Mohawks moved to the St. Lawrence River in the 17th century, wars broke out which saw the Mohawks from the Mohawk Valley attacking the Mohawks of the St. Lawrence River, and vice versa.  Similar battles happend in the 18th century, most noteably in the French and Indian War.  In this war, which was primarily between the French and English colonies as an extension of the Seven Years War, Mohawks from the St. Lawrence met in combat with the Mohawks from the Mohawk Valley.

There was at least one instance where a St. Lawrence Mohawk and a Mohawk Valley Mohawk met in battle and stopped for a friendly discussion, but there are also instances where the Mohawks were far less friendly.  The legendary Taienoken, or King Hendrick, a Mohawk Valley chief, was said to have been killed by Kahnawake Mohawks at the battle of Lake George in September of 1755—the same battle in which the two Mohawks are said to have stopped fighting to have their little chat.

It is probably no coincidence that the establishment of a permanent settlement at Akwesasne occured around the beginning of the French and Indian War in 1754.  Documentation from the era suggests that the French wanted to strengthen the St. Lawrence frontier by putting a new Indian settlement halfway between Kahnawake and Sawekatsi.  They did so by sending 30 families to settle here along with a missionary or two.  An old tradition states that among those first families were the Tarbells, two New England captives adopted and raised by the Kahnawake Mohawks.  The French later stated that they had originally wanted to use this new mission to lure even more Mohawks away from the Mohawk Valley and their alliance with the British.  Whatever the case, the mission and village at Akwesasne was fortified with a log pallisade, and several of the Mohawk warriors were sent out as spies and combatants at various engagements.

This particular part of the St. Lawrence River was a very attractive place back in the old days, mainly due to the fact that the normally turbulent waters suddenly became calm here.  Akwesasne is located where the St. Lawrence widens into Lake St. Francis and has dozens of islands.  According to the descriptions of European explorers, this place was a virtual paradise, a land abundant in trees, wildflowers, animal life, and fish.  It was also an excellent place to ambush our enemies as they passed through, which is exactly what happened during the wars against the Huron in the 1600’s.

Something similar almost came close to happening in the French and Indian War.  It was towards the end of the war, as the English and their Iroquois allies began to get the upper hand at Niagara and Oswego.  Eventually they set their sights on the St. Lawrence River and Montreal.  With a British victory becoming evident, the chiefs of the Seven Nations sent peace envoys to talk to Sir William Johnson, the famous "Mohawk" Baronet.  When he promised that the Seven Nations villages would not be harmed if they did not oppose the British army coming down the St. Lawrence River, they agreed to stand down.  These promises, known today as the Treaty of Oswegatchie, were accompanied by a wampum belt in accordance with Iroquois tradition.

Although the written account of this treaty has not yet been found, an oral tradition recorded over a hundred years ago suggests that the so-called "Akwesasne Wolf Belt"—the very same belt found in the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne’s logo—was the belt given to us at the time.  General Henry B. Carrington came to Akwesasne in the 1890’s to conduct research for the United States census and made inquiries about wampum.  He was told by elder Margaret Cook that the belt represented a treaty between the Seven Nations and King George.  Carrington quoted her directly: "We will live together or die together.  We promise this as long as waters run, the skies do shine, and night brings rest."

When Sir William Johnson, his army, and their Iroquois allies made their way down the St. Lawrence on their way to conquer Montreal, they camped at what is now Cornwall.  Johnson and the Iroquois came to Akwesasne to smoke the pipe of peace.  Ten of the warriors of Akwesasne then jumped in the boats of the British and helped guide them through the troublesome Lachine rapids near Montreal.  They were later awarded medals for their assistance.

The French surrendered Montreal without firing a shot in their defense. Soon after, a peace council was held at Kahnawake in which the Six Nations and the Seven Nations patched up their differences.  Some have said that this was when the Six Nations took the Seven Nations Mohawks "back in" to the Iroquois Confederacy.  All they really did was re-establish the friendly relations that had previously existed before the war.  The Seven Nations continued to speak on their own behalf subsequent to this event but there were the occassional times when they did allow the Six Nations to speak for them in councils with other nations.

In subsequent years, a number of Mohawk Valley Mohawks decided to move to Akwesasne.  According to the American General Philip Schuyler, these Mohawks, numbering at least 40, never severed their ties to the Six Nations.  (Perhaps this is why there are some people in Akwesasne who insist they were "always" a part of the Six Nations?)

And we can’t forget the Abenaki, who came to Akwesasne as refugees after their village at St. Francis was destroyed by Roger’s Rangers in 1759.  Their stay at Akwesasne was somewhat contentious, and they were asked to leave by the 1770’s.  Two of the Abenakis were brothers by the name of Benedict.  One of them went back to St. Francis and one stayed behind in Akwesasne.

There would be many other grafts to the Akwesasne family tree, particularly in the early 1800’s when the Onondagas of Sawekatsi were driven out of their village and forced to relocate to Onondaga and Akwesasne.  This may be the reason why so many people in Akwesasne belong to the Snipe and Deer clans in addition to Turtle, Bear, and Wolf.

Before we get to the 1800’s, however, it is important to maintain the chronology of events and discuss another major conflict that altered the political landscape for Akwesasne and the Seven Nations of Canada: the American Revolution.
 

As we have seen, the French and Indian War (1754-1760) pitted the Six Nations and Seven Nations against each other, thanks to their alliances with the British and the French.  The American Revolution was an altogether different situation in that it pitted individual nations against each other, splintering the unity of both confederacies.  Even on the village level, there was division.  These schisms lasted long after the war ended, and are, in a roundabout manner, why Akwesasne has an invisible Berlin Wall on the U.S./Canada border.

At the onset of the war, the Six Nations and the Seven Nations took the same position that they would remain neutral and let the King and his colonies battle it out without them.  They were unable to maintain that stance when factions within both confederacies began to take sides.  For the most part, the two confederacies tried to maintain the "covenant chain of peace and friendship" with Great Britain.  The most notable of the pro-British Mohawks was Joseph Brant, or Taientaneka, who was educated in a New England school and eventually made a Captain in the King’s army. But the Americans were able to gain adherents among the Oneida and Tuscarora as well as a small faction of Kahnawake Mohawks under the illustrious Colonel Louis Cook, or Akiatonharonkwen.

Louis Cook was a fascinating character who deserves much more than the meager paragraphs this history will permit.  He was the son of an African slave and an Abenaki woman.  He was taken captive by the Kahnawake Mohawks when they attacked Fort Saratoga in 1745, then adopted by them and raised as one of their own.  He excelled as a warrior in the French and Indian War.  When the American colonies began to talk about revolution, he met with the American Generals Philip Schuyler and George Washington and made them an offer. He claimed that he was in charge of the Seven Nations of Canada’s 500 warriors and was ready and willing to offer their services to the Americans. The reality is, he only had about a dozen Kahnawake warriors in his camp, the rest of the Seven Nations were still trying to remain neutral.  Schuyler and Washington eventually agreed that they should accept his offer, since he would most likely approach the British with the same offer if they refused.  They made Louis Cook a Lieutenant Colonel and put him in charge of the Company of Indian Rangers that served under the 1st New York Regiment.

Brant, meanwhile, was busy among the Six Nations and Seven Nations pushing the British cause.  Eventually they took up the war hatchet and launched hundreds of warriors into combat against Colonel Louis and his rebel compatriots.  To quote the British, this war was a bloody mess.  Mohawks from the Six Nations and Seven Nations participated in Brant’s invasion of the Mohawk Valley.  In retaliation, the American army launched a three-pronged invasion that ravaged the Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca villages.  By war’s end, the Iroquois Confederacy was in a shambles.  Brant’s Mohawks were forced out of the Mohawk Valley and had to seek a new place to live in Canada.  As for the pro-American Oneidas and Tuscaroras, they didn’t fare much better for all their assistance to the Americans.

The Seven Nations of Canada, however, were not invaded by the Americans and remained largely intact.  At one point, John Deseronto of the Mohawk Village of Teiontontaroka, or Fort Hunter, actually discussed the possibility of joining the Seven Nations but was discouraged by the British.  He eventually ended up settling on the Bay of Quinte at what is now Tyendinaga.  The animosity between Colonel Louis and Joseph Brant continued well beyond the end of the war.  Feelings between Colonel Louis and the people of Kahnawake weren’t so great, either, and he spent the years after the war either on the Oneida Creek, where he had a farm, or at Akwesasne.

For Akwesasne, the end of the American Revolution resulted in a border being drawn through it at the 45th parallel.  Tradition has it that the people of Akwesasne were told not to worry about this artificial boundary, that it was meant only for non-native people and would not hinder the natives in any way.  The quote that has been handed down over time says, "The border is twenty feet above the tallest Indian head."  We will see from what follows in this historical overview that the border would eventually come to divide our people and even trip us up as we passed across it, as if it were only six inches above the ground!
 

Louis Cook was well paid for his services to the American government.  He received land bounties that he either settled on or sold for cash.  He also continued to assist the Americans, who were busy dividing up Iroquois territory to pay their soldiers.  Louis was offered payment if he was able to get the Iroquois nations to the treaty table, a mission he accepted.

The parallels between Colonel Louis and Joseph Brant continued on into the 1790’s, and herein lies why these two figures are so controversial today.  Both of these men signed treaties with New York State that surrendered Mohawk territory, resulting in controversy in both of their respective communities.  Controversies surrounding the treaty Colonel Louis signed, known today as The Seven Nations of Canada Treaty of 1796, and the treaty Joseph Brant signed, known as The Treaty with the Mohawks of 1797, almost resulted in a war between the Six Nations and the Seven Nations of Canada in 1799.  This was averted by a peace council in Kahnawake in the summer of that year.

The Seven Nations of Canada Treaty of 1796 has been the subject of a great deal of my own research.  Based on documentation found in archives in Ottawa and Albany, it appears to me that not everyone among the Seven Nations of Canada where completely aware of what was going on when Colonel Louis and his delegation began their negotiations.  News of the treaty sparked quite a conflict in Akwesasne, complete with threats, violence, and complaints to the outside authorities.  It resulted in Colonel Louis and his comrades—as well as their families—leaving the village of Kanatakon, or St. Regis, and setting up residence south of the U.S./Canada border.  Kahnawake, Kanehsatake, and the "British Indians of St. Regis" would later squabble over the proceeds of the treaty for decades afterward.  The aftermath of this treaty leaves one to wonder just whose interests Colonel Louis was really serving when he put pen to paper.

The Seven Nations of Canada Treaty, in spite of the controversy surrounding it, set aside a tract of land six miles square for the "Indians of the village of St. Regis" as well as a mile square at what is now Fort Covington and another mile square at what is now Massena, New York.  It also reserved the grassy meadows along the Grass River leading to the Massena tract.  Much of this land was sold off later on in violation of a federal statute known as the "Non-Intercourse  Act," which prohibited the sale of Indian lands to the states without federal approval.  This forms the historical basis of what is now known as our "American claim."  (There are other aspects to this claim, such as Barnhart and other islands, but they are beyond the scope of this document, and have been published elsewhere.)

Joseph Brant’s treaty, which he signed with John Deseronto, resulted in a similar controversy back at Tyendinaga.  Apparently Deseronto kept some of the proceeds for himself and didn’t tell his fellow Mohawks.  Violence erupted at Tyendinaga, the result being the death of a man.  Brant’s reputation hasn’t endured well over time, either, in part because of his sales of land at the Six Nations reserve to outside interests.
 

One would assume that the people of the Six Nations and Seven Nations had learned their lesson about getting caught up in the wars of the outsiders, yet the same situation occurred again in the War of 1812.  Just like before, the two confederacies strove to maintain neutrality, but this went by the wayside as the British and Americans were able to gain support among our warriors.

The British set up a detachment in the village of Kanatakon early on in the war.  It is possible that they used the stone walls of the St. Regis Church as a makeshift fort.  This small outpost was quickly attacked and captured by the American forces stationed in nearby French Mills (Fort Covington.)  During the American attack, several British soldiers were killed and the homes of the Mohawks were ransacked.  Not long after, the British retaliated by attacking the Americans.

Back in Akwesasne, there was a heated debate about the war, especially when the British recruited a number of warriors to join them on the Niagara Frontier.  Those professing neutrality and a pro-American stance made life very difficult for the pro-British faction.  Threats were made and houses were burned.  It got so dangerous that the families of the pro-British warriors were forced to seek refuge on the islands and the north shore of the St. Lawrence River.  Their homes were taken over by those who stayed behind, and they had to petition for years to get some kind of relief.

Colonel Louis, by then a man in his 70’s, volunteered to serve in the American army once again.  He was given a commission and a full uniform, which they say scared the daylights out of his children when they saw him walk through the door.  Some documents from the era suggest that he was given the commission of General, although this has not substantiated with anything official.  We do know that he died after falling from his horse in a battle on the Niagara frontier and was buried with full military honors near Buffalo, New York.

Back at Akwesasne, the warriors returned home after having saved Canada from an American invasion.  The animosities that had been stirred up as a result of the war continued to fester for years.  This schism spilled over to the chiefs as well.  A visitor to Akwesasne in the years after the war commented on how there were "British chiefs" and "American chiefs" at Akwesasne.  In 1927, the Indian agent described an incident in which the "American" and "British" factions of Akwesasne squared off at the "Grand Procession" held in June of each year.  These two groups, each bearing arms and the flags of their respective "nations," issued threats and challenges to each other, forcing the priest to bar the doors of the church to everyone and postpone the festivities until the following week.

While the war was a major factor in the splintering of the Akwesasne community, money also played a role.  Both Great Britain and the United States refused to pay out annuities to anyone on the opposite side of the border.  This resulted in the creation of lists of names of those who were eligible for the payments from treaties and the rental of lands.  These lists have evolved into the enrollment registers that are used today.  People were also forbidden from moving across the line or even doing business there.  When people married someone from the opposite side of the border, they were removed from the list even if they were not automatically put on the list on the other side.

As far as the Seven Nations of Canada were concerned, the changing political and economic landscape in the 19th century resulted in a loosening of the strong ties that held this alliance together.  People were more concerned with day-to-day affairs in each of the communities than in the political dealings of the Seven Nations.  A sense of isolation between the communities became more pronounced, simply because there was a long period of peace and little need for a unified front.  This would all change in the middle of the 1800’s when the Canadian government began to talk about passing laws that would change the way the native peoples were governed. 

More than thirty years ago, Jerry Gambill wrote a research paper which was published by Akwesasne Notes titled, "How Democracy Came to St. Regis."  It was all about the efforts of the Canadian government to bring "advancements" to the way Indian governments operated throughout Canada.  These advancements being, of course, elections and the gradual replacement of the old Council of Life Chiefs. Those efforts resulted in a riot at Akwesasne at election time, followed by the arrest of the Life Chiefs and the killing of Saiowisakeron, or Jake Ice.  For years, Gambill’s paper was the most comprehensive study of that event, and it is still referenced by researchers.

While we certainly owe a debt to Gambill for his efforts to preserve this history, there are certain things he left out of his research that need to be acknowledged.  Those who read his paper assume that the opposition to elections was unanimous in the community, but when you look at the same collection of Indian Affairs documents that Gambill quoted from, you will find not only the petitions of those who were opposed to the elections, but also the petitions of those who actually wanted them!

During my research I uncovered another document which helps to explain why the idea of electing chiefs may have found support at Akwesasne.  This document was written by Franklin B. Hough during one of his research trips to Akwesasne in the mid-1800’s.

According to Hough, things had already begun to fall apart for the Life Chief government on the Canadian side of Akwesasne.  It’s uncertain whether or not the clan mothers were still appointing the Life Chiefs, although the adherence to the clan system remained intact.  Five of the usual twelve Life Chiefs had died and weren’t replaced immediately.  That number eventually dwindled to five.  By 1855, some of the younger people were complaining that the old Life Chiefs had embezzled money and were abusing their power.  This led to a hearing at Akwesasne in which Canadian government officials came in to hear these grievances.  The result of this meeting was that five of the Life Chiefs were deposed and replaced by five new chiefs with a "trial term" of one year.  Eventually some of the younger people in the community decided to hold their own election for chiefs, but according to Hough, this was disallowed by the Canadian government.

Records of the Indian agent throughout the late 1800’s abound with reports of factionalism among the people at Akwesasne as well as the chiefs.  Certain chiefs were accused of participating in the selling of alcohol and others with embezzlement.  While we can only wonder about whether or not there was any truth to these accusations, we can see that the stage was being set for a major change in governance at Akwesasne.

Gambill did a fine job documenting the efforts of the Canadian government to introduce the "Indian Act" elections as well as the efforts of Akwesasne, Kahnawake, Kanehsatake, Tyendinaga, and Grand River to oppose them.  He pointed out that this new threat succeeded in unifying these communities, and also mentioned that "grand councils" had been held in which strategies were discussed on how to oppose Ottawa’s plans.

What I find very curious about his account is that he didn’t mention that in the 1890’s, the people at Akwesasne began their petitions with phrases like, "We the Seven Nations of Iroquois at St. Regis..."  It appears from the full text of the petitions that he paraphrased from that the people of Akwesasne, Kahnawake, and Kanehsatake were starting to revive the old ways, and that included the recognition of the Seven Nations as their political forum.  They also submitted lists of not only the Life Chiefs but the Clan Mothers, too.  It seems they were getting sick of the power the Indian agent held over their government and were taking that power back.

Space does not permit us to recount in greater detail the way the Canadian government reacted to that act of defiance, but that story has been recounted many times before and is very familiar to the people of Akwesasne.  An election was held, a riot took place instead, the chiefs were arrested, and Saiowisakeron was killed trying to rescue them.  Humbled by the resolve of Canada to suppress their traditional ways, the people of Akwesasne were forced to accept the Indian Act elections.

But the dream of returning to the old ways never died.  In fact, the people already knew that the old ways were alive and well in Akwesasne. And these "old ways" were far older than the Indian agents or their superiors in Ottawa could even begin to imagine!
 

In the spring of 1888—more than ten years before the shooting of Saiowisakeron—a Grand Council of the Iroquois Confederacy was held at the Cold Springs reservation.  The main discussion of the day was about the treaties the Six Nations held with United States government.  Of particular concern was the absence of the Mohawk Nation within the boundaries of New York State, now that Joseph Brant’s Mohawks and John Deseronto’s Mohawks were now established in Canada.  Could the absence of Mohawks in New York be used against the Confederacy?  It was a chance the Iroquois were not willing to take.  Harriet Converse, the non-native folklorist who had become something of a champion of the Iroquois, urged them to adopt the Mohawks of Akwesasne into the Six Nations  Confederacy, since half of the reserve was located in New York State.  This seemed like a reasonable solution to the Iroquois chiefs.

The Federal Census of 1890 records the names of the individuals chosen to serve as the new Mohawk Nation Chiefs.  One of them, Phillip Tarbell, or Otarakehte, was my great great grandfather and a member of the Wolf clan.  Joseph Wood, or Saronesaraken, was a member of the Heron clan.  Peter Herring, or Teranonranoronsa, was a member of the Turtle clan.  Alexander Solomon, or Orihonni, was a member of the Turtle clan.  Angus White, or Nikaontaa, was a member of the Snipe clan.  Charles White, or Tanawanaken, was a member of the Wolf clan.  The remaining three chiefs were Joseph Bero, John White, and Frank Terrance.  In addition to these men, six "sub-chiefs" were chosen.

It is interesting to note that two of the chiefs, Joseph Wood and Angus White, were also "Trustees" under the American elected system.  The members of newly-formed council  were most likely either Catholic or Methodist, and almost all of their names can be found on the map included in the census of 1890 of the "American" side of Akwesasne.

Very little is known today just how important an event this actually was to the people involved.  We don’t know if they were given title names like Tekarihoken, or if an elaborate condolence ceremony was conducted to install them in office.  While some today view 1888 as the year the Katsista, or Mohawk Nation Fire, came to Akwesasne—establishing it as the "capital" of the Mohawk Nation—it is hard to say if the community saw it in those terms at the time.  Eventually the people chosen as Mohawk Nation chiefs died out.  Some have suggested that the movement simply went "underground" for a while.  It wasn’t until the 1930’s that one begins to see newspaper accounts of another Six Nations "revival" taking place in Akwesasne.

For the purposes of this study, however, we can see that 1888 marked a rather significant milestone in our quest to understand just why the Seven Nations of Canada has slipped into obscurity.  Even if it wasn’t that big a deal at the time—the Seven Nations Life Chiefs were still in power, after all—it marked the beginning of the end of the Seven Nations as a political and cultural force at Akwesasne.

There are several possible factors underlying the shift in allegiance from the Seven Nations to the Six Nations here at Akwesasne.

The first is that the Six Nations system represents a pre-contact traditional way of life while the Seven Nations is a product of the colonial era.  Native people tired of the interference of non-native governments in their political dealings are very likely to yearn for the days when Europeans weren’t around.

The second factor is the Church.  In the late 1800’s, the resident priest had become somewhat difficult in his old age and was alienating a number of his parishioners.  This might have turned off some Mohawks from the Roman Catholic Church altogether.  We know that the Methodists were beginning to gain more followers in this era.  The  traditional ways were seeing a similar increase in interest.  By the 1900’s, the Roman Catholic Church had begun to move toward educating the Mohawks in English and assisting the American and Canadian governments in efforts to assimilate them.

A third factor is the increase in attention that the outside world was giving to the Six Nations.  People like Arthur C. Parker, Lewis Henry Morgan, William Beauchamp, and Harriet Converse were making quite a name for themselves by studying and publishing their research on Iroquois history and culture.  Very little attention was paid to the Seven Nations of Canada.

A fourth factor is the material that has been written about the Seven Nations. For over a hundred years the only real authority on the subject was Franklin B. Hough, who wrote extensively on the Seven Nations in his landmark A History of St. Lawrence and Franklin Counties,  New York, published in 1853.  It was his assessment of the Seven Nations that colored the opinions of people towards the Seven Nations for many years.  Many of his assumptions, such as the idea that the priests basically led the chiefs of the Seven Nations around by the nose, have been accepted by many as gospel, even though his opinions may have been influenced by an anti-Catholic, anti-Canadian, and anti-Indian bias that many American writers of that era shared.

A fifth factor is the existence and knowledge of treaties made by the Six Nations with the United States.  These have been published and are readily available. The only Seven Nations of Canada treaty that most people know about is the 1796 quit-claim signed by Colonel Louis Cook and his friends, and this leaves a bad taste in a lot of people’s mouth due to lingering doubts about its validity.  Another Seven Nations treaty, the 1760 Treaty of Oswegatchie, has only recently become the subject of historical interest.

The sixth factor was undoubtedly the Canadian government’s suppression of the Life Chiefs that took place in the late 1800’s, as I have previously mentioned.  The people of Akwesasne never forgot that the Canadian government was literally pointing a gun at their heads to get them to accept a new form of governance.  Although many of the Life Chiefs were eventually put up as candidates in the new elections, their clan-based government  became something of an "underground" movement at Akwesasne.
 
Finally, the seventh factor that may have led to a shift in allegiance from the Seven Nations has been the rise in prominence of Six Nations traditionalists in both politics and the media at Akwesasne.  Starting in the 1950’s with Standing Arrow, and continuing on through the 1960’s with the Stanley Island Encampment and the Seaway International Bridge Blockade, Mohawk traditionalists started gaining momentum in the political scene in Akwesasne and would be prominent for half a century.  Their influence has spread into education and the media with the Indian Way School, The White Roots of Peace, Akwesasne Notes, the Akwesasne Freedom School, the North American Indian Travelling College, Indian Time Newspaper, and CKON FM.  These grass-roots organizations have a rather high profile both within Akwesasne and in the outside world.  They have gained our community a strong reputation as a leader in cultural revival.

When you consider all of these factors, it becomes understandable why the Seven Nations of Canada has faded into the background at Akwesasne.  Quite simply, Akwesasne had progressed in its development to the point where it was safe and even necessary to revive the ancient ways and beliefs that had sustained us for centuries of time before an alien tribe invaded these shores and threw everything into chaos.  It was right to reclaim our true identity, spirit, and character, and to reject the views of outsiders that the old ways were "backwards" and even "Satanic."  We have had several generations to realize, beyond a shadow of a doubt, that the old ways are nothing to fear, but are something very comforting and spiritually satisfying.  Who among us can argue that it is a bad thing that our children now see a sticker of an Ayonwatha Belt on another car and know immediately that the people inside that other car are "our people"?

Unfortunately, that cultural revival has come at a considerable expense.  In our rush to revive the cultural ways that existed before the European invasion, many of us lost sight of the amazing achievement of those Mohawks who lived between then and now, the ones who struggled to make sense of the colonizers and to preserve what they could of the old ways in their own time.  It was these Mohawks who created the Seven Nations of Canada, an alliance that was far more "Indian" than some would have us believe.
 

Based on the historical essay on the Seven Nations of Canada that I have presented in this series, it should be evident to everyone how important it is to learn everything we can about this alliance.  It is particularly important to do this research if we go to court to press our American land claim. I have no doubt that the State of New York already has a small army of lawyers and researchers scouring the archives for every scrap of information they can get their hands on about the Seven Nations, the Treaty of 1796, and Colonel Louis Cook.  And they will find it.  They will spare no expense to do so.  How they interpret that information can mean the difference between us coming away from the land claims trial with nothing more than a hefty legal bill or a sense of real justice.  If we don’t have something to counter that interpretation with, then we deserve the beating we are guaranteed to get.

Am I exaggerating?  I assure you that I am not.  Take a look at what happened in Grand Chief Mike Mitchell’s border crossing case.  Take a close look. Don’t just read the press clippings.  Read the statement of claim.  The actual testimony.  The expert witness reports.  The appendixes to those reports.  The decision.  The appeal.  The Supreme Court ruling.

Grand Chief Mike Mitchell went to court arguing what I call The Big Happy Family Theory of Iroquois History.  This theory states that we always have been members of the Iroquois Confederacy, and that all of the treaties of the Six Nations apply to us.  The Crown’s expert witness had a field day blasting holes in Mitchell’s case.  According to the Crown’s expert witness, Mitchell completely ignored the Seven Nations of Canada in his historical account and claimed protection under treaties and councils in which Akwesasne wasn’t even represented.  When all was said and done, Mitchell came out of the trial without the courts recognizing any of the treaties he had argued.  The court did recognize that we had the aboriginal right to cross the border without paying duty, but that was it.  Mitchell paraded the decision as a victory and completely downplayed the fact that the court did not recognize our treaty rights.  With that in mind, it was not a complete surprise to see the Supreme Court not only accept Canada’s appeal of the decision, but uphold the appeal and rule that Mitchell did not prove that the Mohawks of Akwesasne have even the aboriginal right to bring trade goods into Canada without paying duty.  I’m no lawyer, but it seems possible that a favorable ruling on treaty rights might have prevented that from happening.

Mitchell took a calculated gamble with the rights of not only the Akwesasne people, but of First Nations on both sides of the border.  He used hundreds of thousands of dollars of community money to push the case, but he did not seek community approval for the historical positions he took.  Had he done so, there would have been some degree of debate in the community over the idea of using the "Six Nations Only" position or one that acknowledges our historic involvement with the Seven Nations of Canada.

Would the result have been any different?  We will never know.

One thing I do know is that the Seven Nations of Canada did make a treaty with the Crown on August  30, 1760, as I mentioned earlier in the section that concerned the French and Indian War and the so-called "Akwesasne Wolf Belt."  Although the paper documentation has not yet been found, the terms of The Treaty of Oswegatchie were probably very similar to the agreement made by the Hurons of Lorette with Great Britain’s General Murray on September 5, 1760.  Murray had promised the Hurons that their rights would be honored and protected by the British in exchange for making peace.  This agreement between the Hurons and the Crown was recognized as being a valid treaty by the Supreme Court of Canada in the Sioui decision of 1990.  The Mi’kmaqs had a similar treaty which was recognized by the Supreme Court of Canada recently in the famous Donald Marshall, Jr. case.  Had Mitchell argued for recognition of the Treaty of Oswegatchie in the border crossing case, it may very well have been recognized as a valid treaty, just like the Huron and Mi’kmaq treaties. But because he took a position that ignored the Seven Nations, a golden opportunity was missed.

It will be some time before the full ramifications of the Mitchell case sink in with aboriginal peoples across Canada and even in the United States, since the rulings on aboriginal rights and sovereignty will affect them as much as the Mohawks.  What I have pointed out about this case is just one aspect of it. This case will be talked about—and scrutinized—for years to come.
 

We are currently waiting for our day in court—or the negotiating table—to pursue our New York land claim.  As a chief with the land claims portfolio for MCA, I firmly believe that we are headed for trouble if we do not acknowledge the role of the Seven Nations of Canada in our history and craft our legal strategy accordingly.  I am not saying that we totally disavow the Six Nations perspective completely; that would be madness.  But to not acknowledge the Seven Nations of Canada to the degree that it truly warrants is nothing short of legal suicide...especially when one considers that the Seven Nations of Canada Treaty of 1796 is the most important document to be dealt with in that particular land claim.

Without a well-researched historical position, the issue of the Seven Nations of Canada is the rock on which our land claim dreams will be dashed.

When I ran for chief last summer, I ran on a land claims platform.  I did this because I knew what happened in the border crossing case, and I didn’t want to see that happening in the American claim.  I felt compelled to make sure that the story of the Seven Nations did not go untold.  As much as I had always dreaded the thought of going into politics, I made the conscious decision to run for chief and to champion the cause of our true history in the land claims arena.

Of course, I knew going into this that in all likelihood I would be sitting on the same council as Grand Chief Mike Mitchell, the leading proponent of the "Seven Nations Don’t Matter" school of thought.  I knew there would be resistance to my historical positions, even though I can back them up with stacks of documents. What I didn’t know is how vehement that opposition would be, or to which lengths that opposition would go to discredit me.

Several weeks ago, I was told that the Grand Chief has been telling people that "Darren Bonaparte is meeting with a small group that wants to start up the Seven Nations and overthrow the MCA."  There has also been talk about a "faction at MCA that wants to go with the Seven Nations" and other such nonsense.  The illusion is being created that I am conspiring to revive the Seven Nations of Canada for some nefarious purpose, perhaps to kick the Iroquois Confederacy (and all of its supporters) out of Akwesasne.  That’s just plain crazy.
 
The truth of the matter is that I have been meeting with small groups of people to talk about the Seven Nations of Canada.  I have been for years.  It’s what I do.  I do this here in Akwesasne, in the colleges, in the schools, for historical societies, and anybody else who is interested.  I believe in sharing the things I’ve learned, not sitting on the information like it’s some kind of secret.  I will speak with anyone who asks, and this includes people with radically different points of view.

Many of the people I have spoken with are considered by the Grand Chief to be his political and personal enemies, and he has assumed that their interest in the Seven Nations must be some kind of conspiracy against his leadership.  Interestingly enough, many of the people he considers his supporters attend these very same discussions and don’t seem at all concerned that they are being drawn into some kind of sinister plot to overthrow all that is right and good in Akwesasne.  On the contrary, they are interested in learning about this overlooked aspect of our cultural heritage just like everyone else.  What’s more, they also contribute to the discussion.  I leave these meetings with a few new clues to follow up as well as new insights into Mohawk oral tradition that I was previously unaware of.

The Grand Chief’s political woes, of course, aren’t all based on his irrational fears of the Seven Nations of Canada; they have a lot to do with other issues and personal differences that are beyond the scope of this document.  But it is interesting how he has tried to drum up fear about the Seven Nations when there really isn’t anything to fear about it at all.
 

The debate about the Six Nations and the Seven Nations isn’t so much a "one or the other" proposition.  The fact of the matter is, native confederacies often overlapped each other.  There were times when we spoke through both confederacies, just as there were times when we spoke through only one of them.  Even if we decided to revive the Seven Nations of Canada, there would be nothing to fear from a strengthening of ties to the communities that were members of this alliance.  In fact, those other communities, such as the Abenaki and the Huron, would probably welcome the chance to forge stronger ties to the Mohawks and the Iroquois Confederacy.  They are, in fact, already making overtures about just such a revival.

A Mi’kmaq contacted me a while back to talk about the wampum belts of the Seven Nations.  He seemed surprised to learn that here in Akwesasne the subject of the Seven Nations is almost "taboo" to certain people, and that there wasn’t a lot published or openly discussed about it.  According to this gentleman, the Seven Nations were well-known in his community, even though his people were late-comers to the alliance.  He was confused as to why the Mohawks—the driving force behind the formation of this confederacy—would have all but forgotten about it in so short a period of time.

I tried to answer him as best I could.  Then I made up my mind that it was time to bring this subject out in the open where it belonged.  Considering the way it was being used as a political weapon against me, I decided that it was time to take on the Siamese Twins of Ignorance and Fear once and for all.

To that effect, I propose that we begin a process of educating ourselves about the Seven Nations of Canada and its role in our history.  I have already begun this with the "living history" presentations I do in the schools and colleges.  I propose that we take this a few steps further by holding a conference on the subject here in Akwesasne, and invite both community members and the scholars who are researching this history.  Only through open and honest discussion will we eradicate the fears and misperceptions that are out there concerning the Seven Nations.

For those of us who truly believe that the Seven Nations of Canada is something bad or dangerous to our sovereignty as Rotinonsionni people—or even worse, a myth invented by a priest—let them come forth with their evidence, documentary or otherwise, and present and defend those points of view in a public forum.  I am fully prepared to present the documentation I have found and to explain the historical positions I have taken.  I am also prepared to revise my positions if presented with convincing evidence to the contrary.

It is vitally important that community members learn everything we can about the history of both the Seven Nations and the Six Nations.  Some would have us concentrate only on the positive aspects of that history, but we need much more than the "warm fuzzy feeling" that such an approach would give us.  We need to examine how and why these confederacies were formed.  We need to know why the competing European colonies brought so much division among our people, and why those divisions still seem to linger today.  Furthermore, we need to make sure that the leaders of this community, be they elected or traditional, have a sound grasp of this history, and that they have the informed consent of the people before they venture into a non-native court of law to roll the dice on our rights and our future.  Otherwise it will be our descendents who open up a history book seven generations from now and shake their heads and wonder, "What were they thinking?"